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The CDC explains the human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccine and its importance. The vaccine should be given to both boys and girls around the age of 11 and have the second dose 6 months to a year later. If people do not receive the vaccine as a child, then they will have to get 3 doses after they turn 15 years old to ensure they are protected. It is important that people get the vaccine young as its purpose is to prevent HPV. Once acquired, HPV cannot be cured; it stays with you for life. A person can still get the vaccine through 26 years old if not already. The CDC recommends the HPV vaccine because it can prevent infections and cervical cancer/precancer. HPV strains that cause warts and most cancers have dropped by 86% in teen girls since the vaccination has been used. Additionally, the CDC recommends you get the HPV vaccine to prevent cervix, vaginal, vulva, penis, anus, and back of the throat cancers. The HPV vaccination alone can stop around 32,000 people from getting cancer!!

A flyer from the American Academy of Pediatrics explains how the HPV vaccine was tested before distributed. In 1997, Gardasil (another name for the HPV vaccine) began testing with over 14,000 people in the clinical trial. After testing for about a decade, the FDA approved the drug in 2006, ensuring the drug was safe and would cause little to no harm to patients. Additionally, the FDA explains how they ensure the vaccine was tested in 2009 to ensure its safety just a few years after it was put on the market. They state that several studies of over 21,000 women were completed to ensure the HPV vaccine’s safety before it was approved. The FDA stated how it monitors vaccines and has very strict standards. Additionally, each lot of vaccine is tested before it is distributed.

I believe it is necessary for everyone who can get the HPV vaccine to get it. Not only will it prevent women from getting cervical cancer, but it will also help men as well. Additionally, it prevents genital warts, and who wants those? It is ridiculous that some parents will not vaccinate their kids because they are scared it will encourage them to have sex. These parents will just end up harming their kids more than helping when they become sexually active and come down with the incurable HPV virus that could possibly give them cancer. Parents should focus on their children’s health, and not worry about their 12-year-old who are in middle school and become embarrassed when other people do so much as look at them. Having a living, vaccinated daughter who is sexually active is better than having a daughter who died from HPV caused cervical cancer. Parents should do their research before having children so they can do what’s best for their kids’ longevity.

Antibiotic resistance is becoming a serious issue in medicine all across the globe. The CDC explains how antibiotic resistance occurs. Certain bacteria or fungi are bad and can make people sick, resulting in infection, and some can even be resistant to antibiotics. These bacteria find ways to survive even when the antibiotics are present. They use resistance mechanisms like plasmids from their DNA. Plasmids can easily carry DNA from one bacterium to another. When they carry resistant bacteria, the resistance multiplies along with the bacteria and spreads their resistance to other types of bacteria via these plasmids. This allows the resistance to move across states, countries, and continents causing more resistance and serious medical issues. Additionally, antibiotics can do more harm than good, as all antibiotics kill good bacteria living in humans, destroying their microbiome. The CDC also tells of the resistance that first arose with Penicillin in 1967. Since the use of antibiotics began many types have resistance strains, making it harder for us to keep using them and getting rid of bacteria-caused infections. Penicillin, vancomycin, amphotericin B, methicillin, azithromycin, imipenem, ciprofloxacin, daptomycin, and several others have at least one bacteria strain that are resistant to them.

The World Health Organization explains how the resistance problem started and what is being done around the world to help solve the problem. Recently, antibiotics have been overprescribed by doctors, as patients go in and ask for antibiotics even when they will not work for them. Also, not all patients take their antibiotics responsibly, making resistance an even bigger problem. Prevention methods include taking antibiotics fully and properly without sharing them, only prescribing antibiotics when needed, not using antibiotics on animals for growth, etc. Although new antibiotics are being made, they will most likely still be made useless as bacteria evolve and learn to become resistant to them. Eventually, when antibiotics become useless as they are used incorrectly, different methods will be used for treatment. They will be a lot longer and will most likely have to occur in hospital, causing more expense for both hospitals and families and cause increased stress for everyone involved. Without antibiotics, simple surgeries will also become bigger problems as risks for infection will increase greatly. Scientists in Denmark were successful, however, in making an antibiotic that can fight resistant E. coli. They found that a mix of mecillinam and cefotaxime can make extended spectrum beta-lactamase sensitive to the effects of the antibiotics. These drugs can be taken orally, making it easier for patients and doctors to administer, causing UTIs to become less of a problem. However, this antibiotic combination only works on a certain strain of ESBL E. coli, so doctors have to ensure that they patient is infected with this before prescribing the antibiotic.

I believe it is absolutely imperative that we educate everyone on the proper use of antibiotics. If people did not go to their doctor and demand antibiotics when they do not need them, we would not have such a large problem. We must explain the difference between viruses and infection from bacteria. Additionally, I think doctors should take more precaution and only prescribe antibiotics when absolutely necessary. It is crazy that resistance is becoming so prevalent that eventually we might not be able to use antibiotics in the future. I also believe the government should prevent farmers from using unnecessary antibiotics that can be easily spread to humans. Antibiotic resistance should be talked about more often people are aware of it and how they can help prevent it from growing.

There has been a lot of controversy about the measles, mumps and rubella vaccine (MMR), but the CDC states that there is little to nothing to be afraid of with the vaccination as the benefits outweigh the drawbacks. The measles is a serious infection causing rash, cough, watery eyes, and several complications like pneumonia and even death. Mumps is also a serious infection causing swollen salivary glands and muscle aches with complications of swollen testicles and pelvic pain in women. Finally, rubella causes a rash, itchy eyes, fever, and can cause miscarriage or serious birth defects if a woman gets the infection when she is pregnant. The CDC ensure the public that extreme side effects from the MMR vaccine are very rare, and it usually only causes a sore arm and possibly a fever. It is incredibly rare to get a seizure from the vaccination or have a life-threatening allergic reaction.

Additionally, the CDC describes how the MMR vaccine works. It contains a live, attenuated (weakened) form of the measles, mumps, and rubella virus. Additionally, there is a MMRV vaccine that also contains attenuated varicella-zoster virus. The vaccination for MMR is extremely effective with a 93%, 78%, and 97% effectiveness for measles, mumps, and rubella respectively after the first dose, and it also has an effectiveness of 97%, 88%, and 97% after the second dose. Additionally, these two doses protect people for life against measles and rubella; however, immunity for mumps decreases over time. The FDA reminds the US that the MMR vaccine is incredibly important, especially during the school year. The administration reiterates that the vaccine is completely safe and how serious it is that a preventable disease is making a comeback as false information is spread that the vaccine can cause autism. There have been recent outbreaks in the US because there is an increase in unvaccinated people. The FDA states that the vaccine is the best way to prevent infection so that no more outbreaks occur.

I believe it is crucial that people get the MMR vaccine. Although it may frighten some that it is an attenuated virus, the chances you or your child will become sick from it are little to none. I cannot understand how some parents are willing to risk their children getting serious infections because they read misinformation online and do not do their research on non-biased sources. Additionally, I think it is insane how people do not get the vaccine, especially with its extremely high effectiveness. It is absolutely necessary that parents vaccinate their children against MMR for the sake of their children’s lives and the sake of other people’s. Babies and immunocompromised people cannot receive certain vaccines and rely on herd immunity that doesn’t exist without everyone getting the vaccine who can. I believe the MMR is a safe vaccination and should be received by everyone who can get it.

The Center for Disease Control explains the importance of the polio vaccination and the different forms of the vaccine. The CDC recommends that kids are given four different doses of the inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV) at 2 months, 4 months, anywhere from 6 to 18 months, and anywhere from 4 to 6 years old. This vaccine schedule is critically important if the child is going to a location where there is a greater chance of getting polio—outside of the United States. Adults who did not receive the IPV during childhood are still recommended to get it in 3 different doses: the first at any time, the second a few months later, and the last 6 months to a year after the second dose. The IPV alone has been used in the US to treat polio since the 2000, and, depending on the age of the patient, the vaccination is given in the arm or the leg. Another type of polio vaccine—oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV)—is not given in the US anymore as it can cause vaccine-derived poliovirus (VDPV). The CDC states that VDPV occurs when the weakened poliovirus that was in the OPV mutates, causing it to behave like the wild type, which is spread more readily through stool and respiratory secretions. The OPV is still used in places outside of the US where children are given it via drops in the mouth. However, the IPV is more effective as it has a 90% immunity for 3 types of polio after the first two doses and a 99% immunity after the third dose.

Stephanie Soucheray of the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy explained that the wild poliovirus type 3 (WPV3) has been completely eradicated. Because of this new eradication that occurred in October of 2019, two of the three types of the wild poliovirus are now eradicated all over the world. The WPV3 was last in Nigeria in 2012 and the last case of WPV2 was officially eradicated in 2015. The only place WPV3 exists is now in secure containment. Now, WPV1 is only found in Afghanistan and Pakistan, and it has not been found in Africa since 2016. However, some African countries have recently reported cases of VDPV from the OPV. Edna Mohamed writes that new polio cases in Africa have been linked to the OPV which causes more paralysis than the WPV1. The WHO found 9 cases caused by the vaccine last year caused by OPV in 4 different African countries. Because 95% of the population needs to be given the vaccine before polio is eradicated, the OPV is causing issues. However, OPV is used in developing countries because it is lower in cost and only needs two drops per dose.

I think polio eradication is crazy. It is amazing that two of the three types have been completely eradicated, and that the WPV1 is slowly diminishing. Though the OPV is causing issues with VDPV, I believe it is better to take the chance to keep the spread of WPV1 as low as possible. However, I do think it would be extremely beneficial to find a way to make the IPV cheaper so it can be used in developing countries. Additionally, I think the more awareness is spread the more money could be raised to possibly get the IPV to developing countries so the risk of VDPV could be nonexistent. Polio eradication is another important reason I advocate for vaccinations. Without the polio vaccines, it would be impossible for eradication to occur. Also, there would be little no herd immunity for immunocompromised people who could not receive the vaccine. I hope there continue to be more developments with the OPV so that the risk of VDPV ceases to exist.

The anti-vax movement has grown in the past several years, especially as parents are worried about the possibility of putting harmful chemicals in their children. The World Health Organization writes about several misconceptions currently being spread about vaccines that could potentially harm thousands of people. One common misconception is that vaccines can be harmful and can cause sickness and death in certain cases. However, the WHO states that vaccines are incredibly safe, and sickness that occurs after a vaccination is normally short and minor, if it even occurs at all. Additionally, the WHO says that so few deaths occur from immunizations that it is hard to put a statistic to its occurrence. People who are against vaccinations believe that many who get disease have been vaccinated for that disease. The WHO states that these claims are simply not true as certain vaccines, like the MMR vaccination, are up to 98% effective. Though immunizations can never be 100% effective, most received in childhood are 85% to 95% effective.

Many parents who were once anti-vaxxers now regret their decisions as their children become infected with preventable diseases. In an article by Brandy Zadrozny, she tells of a mom who listened to the “Stop Mandatory Vaccination” online group rather than medical advice when her son came down with the flu. Because of this group, the mom did not pick up her son’s prescribed Tamiflu and instead followed advice of anti-vaxxers to use Vitamin C and breastmilk instead. The mother also stated that she had not vaccinated her kids for the flu since 2017. Because of misconceptions and lies spread by anti-vaxxers the 4-year-old died after running a high fever and having a seizure. Thus, the mother could have easily saved the life of her child if she had listened to the advice of her doctor.

It is absolutely imperative that everyone who can be vaccinated, be vaccinated. Not only will it protect you, but it will protect others around you. Additionally, it helps with herd immunity where resistance to a specific disease increases if most of the population has been vaccinated. Then, pregnant women, the elderly, and immunocompromised people who cannot receive vaccines will still be protected. Though I believe freedom of speech is of utmost importance, I think there should be serious legal repercussions for anti-vaxxers spreading lies around the internet. They have little to no scientific evidence supporting their stance, and they are going to hurt more people than help, especially as vaccines are incredibly helpful in preventing disease. I believe vaccinations should be greatly considered before being refused, and that anti-vaxxer groups should face serious repercussions for any lies and misconceptions they spread. 

Liam Shaw and Nigel Klein’s article give an in-depth explanation of the microbiome and its effects.  Simply stated, the microbiome is the microorganisms that live in human’s bodies. Babies form their microbiome starting at birth when they exit the vaginal canal and contact vaginal microbiota. Newborns are then exposed to many bacteria from the environment that they were not exposed to in the womb. These bacteria stay with the child as they grow, constantly changing and shifting when exposed to different microorganisms. The microbiome also has many important functions. It helps with the development of the immune system, helps babies digest breast milk, helps form resistance to harmful bacteria, and many other functions. Antibiotics can greatly affect the microbiome, especially when used as a child, possibly causing autoimmune diseases as the microbiome helps form the immune system form and function. Additionally, antibiotic use can make the microbiome less diverse.

Recent research has shown how the microbiome and its disruption can lead to diseases, but it can also help with aging. Jenna Sternberg writes about how microbiota could speed up Alzheimer’s disease progression. Certain protein clumps in the brain are found when a person is diagnosed with Alzheimer’s. The immune system normally helps rid these clumps with the help of microglia; however, microglia can actually worsen the clumps when they release high levels of inflammatory chemicals. To show this, scientists gave antibiotics to rats, changing their microbiota, and found that their microglia did not release too much inflammatory chemicals to worsen the clumps. However, when the microbes were reintroduced, the clumps were restored and more inflammation chemicals were released in excess, showing that microbiota affects the immune system and Alzheimer’s progression. A study at Nanyang Technological University found that changing diet could slow the aging process as it pertains to the microbiome. When microbiome from old mice was placed in young mice, increased butyrate was produced, which effects energy, metabolism, and neurogenesis. Thus, it is possible that butyrate, which is made through microbial fermentation in the GI tract, could help heal and repair spinal damage and diminish aging and cognitive decline that comes along with it.

I strongly believe that the microbiome may be one of the most important factors in a person’s body. It is necessary to keep a healthy microbiome for many reasons. Not only can it help the immune system function better, but it can also slow aging. Additionally, I think helping your child develop a healthy microbiome is essential so that they live a long and healthy life. Though people want to keep their children healthy, they should be exposed to the world so they become acquainted with new microbes, especially non-pathogenic ones. Then, children’s immune systems will be more developed and can prevent disease from disruptions in microbiota. I also think it is necessary to not request antibiotics every time someone gets sick. Antibiotics can do more harm than help when used inappropriately, especially pertaining to microbiota. The human microbiome is essential to remain happy and healthy, especially if you want to stay young as long as possible. 

The Center for Disease Control states that the novel coronavirus that started spreading in 2019 is a form of a coronavirus. It was first found in Wuhan, China where officials have now diagnosed tens of thousands of cases of the virus, and it is still continuing to spread rapidly. The virus can be spread via person-to-person contact. However, scientists have discovered that the novel coronavirus originally came from bats. As learned in class, viral spikes on the bat virus have now changed their affinity and can now bind to human respiratory tissue, causing humans to get the virus. Specifically, most people who got the respiratory illness in the beginning were linked to a live animal marked in Wuhan, confirming animal-to-person spread and person-to-person spread as some who did not go to the marked it got the virus from those who did.

The CDC also gives more information about its spread, prevention, and symptoms. Coronaviruses are a major type of virus that are found in different types of animals. Only sometimes can this virus spread to humans, though. The person-to-person spread is the most common and can happen when people are in close contact with each other. Respiratory droplets from sneezing and/or coughing can be inhaled, which may cause a person to come down with the virus as well. The major symptoms of the novel virus are fever, cough, and shortness of breath. Additionally, the symptoms of this respiratory illness can appear 2 to 14 days after exposure, showing its incubation period can be rather long, causing people to spread the virus without knowing that have contracted it. Although there is no antiviral treatment, there are many simple ways to prevent infection: wash hands frequently, refrain from touching your face, disinfect objects that are frequently used, stay away from those who are sick, and ensure to stay at home if you become sick.

Although I believe the novel coronavirus is a serious virus, I do not think there should be a severe panic. As long as everyone is using proper prevention techniques, especially washing their hands, there is no serious and major threat for us, especially in North Carolina. I believe that the flu is a more serious problem in America right now, as we are in peak flu season and many do not get the vaccine. Additionally, we learned in class that the coronavirus is an enveloped virus, easily killed or inactivated by simply using hand sanitizers. However, I do believe it is concerning that the coronavirus can go through antigenic drift, when the RNA virus mutates and once formed antibodies against the virus no longer work against the new variation of the virus.

The Center for Disease Control states that influenza, more commonly known as the flu, is a respiratory disease, which can cause severe sickness that can sometimes lead to death. The virus infects the respiratory tract, the nose and throat, and can even infect the lungs which can lead to pneumonia. The onset of flu occurs very quickly with signs and symptoms of body aches, cough, sore throat, headache, tiredness, and sometimes fever and chills. People can easily come down with the flu as it is spread by droplets from coughing, sneezing, and even talking. Those 65 and older as well as children 18 and younger are twice as more likely to get the flu. Additionally, those with chronic conditions and pregnant women are at high risk for getting the flu.

The CDCs weekly flu article for week 4 states that out of 662, 536 cases tested since September 29^th over 107,343 cases have tested positive for the flu with 12, 715 cases testing positive in week 4 alone. Additionally, over 41 states with Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia reported high levels of influenza-like illness during week 4 alone. Similarly, 49 states and Puerto Rico reported flu activity in week 4. Many deaths have occurred from the flu this season with 68 pediatric deaths and with 6.7% of all death occurring because of pneumonia and the flu in week 3. However, the flu can be prevented and its effects lessened with the yearly flu vaccine. The CDC states that the vaccine effectiveness is somewhere between 40% to 60%; thus, those who are vaccinated have half the chance of getting the flu as someone who did not get the vaccination. The CDC recommends getting vaccinated in October before the flu becomes problematic so immunity can form. All regular-dose vaccinations this year are quadrivalent, meaning that they protect against 2 A viruses and 2 B viruses of the flu.

Because the flu can cause such serious complications, I believe it is absolutely necessary for everyone who is physically able to receive the flu vaccination. Not only will it protect you from getting the virus or a severe form of it, but it will also protect others around you, preventing spread of the virus. It is not right nor fair for a person to endanger another simply because they do not wish to spend time getting a vaccine. Flu vaccinations are absolutely critical for herd immunity—protection from the flu that occurs when all who can receive the vaccine receive it. Then, this would ensure that immunocompromised patients, older patients, and children have a smaller chance of getting the flu, especially as some immunocompromised patients and babies are not allowed to receive the vaccine at all. Though, the vaccine is normally is not 100% effective, some immunity is better than none at all. Additionally, I believe it is essential that people prevent the flu and spread of germs in their daily life by simply covering their mouth when they cough with the inside of their elbow, constantly washing their hands, and staying home when sick. Thus, everyone will be safer and healthier as their chance of getting the flu will smaller when people take precaution and get their fly vaccine.

Laura Eggertson’s article “Lancet Retracts 12-year-old Article Linking Autism to MMR Vaccines” discusses the faults with Andrew Wakefield’s study and the reason for its retraction. Andrew Wakefield, with 12 coauthors, published a study in 1998 claiming that there is a correlation between the MMR vaccine and the development of autism in children. His findings resulted in a frenzy, causing hundreds of thousands of parents all around the world to refuse the MMR vaccine for their children. Wakefield studied 12 children with chronic enterocolitis and regressive developmental disorder who were referred to the Royal Free Hospital in London. Additionally, the 12 children were selected specifically for this investigation. Of these kids, 8 of the 12 were said to have regressed in learned skills, and their parents linked this loss with the MMR vaccination. Thus, Wakefield and his fellow coauthors concluded that the vaccine, referred to as “possible environmental triggers” in his article, were linked with the onset of regressive developmental disorder. However, lawyers representing parents in lawsuits against vaccine manufacturers were funding Wakefield’s research enterprises. Additionally, Clare Dyer writes that no research has after the fact has found a link between the MMR vaccine and developmental delays.

Wakefield’s study was unethical and corrupt for several reasons. Firstly, he only used a sample size of 12 children. There is no possible way these 12 children reflected the entire population like studies should so findings can be applied to everyone in that population. An absence of a control group also made this study faulty. Wakefield had no one to compare the studied children with developmental delays to. And, because no study has been able to replicate Wakefield’s findings, it clear that the MMR vaccine has little to no link to autism or regressive developmental disorder. Without replication, it is hard to prove that causation or a link exists. It is completely unethical of Wakefield to accept funding from lawyers who want Wakefield’s study to prove that vaccine’s cause autism. This is a blatant example of a conflict of interest, and should never have occurred, especially as it might have caused Wakefield to look for correlations rather than be unbiased in his research.

According to an article from the World Health Organization, the number of measles cases spiked in 2017, with severe outbreaks in the Western Pacific Region. In the Region, measles cases increased by 250% with over a majority of the cases coming from the Philippines alone. In 2018, the Philippines had over 23,000 cases reported by March with 333 deaths. And, the population most infected were children below the age of 5. Only 9 countries in the Region have completely eliminated the measles to where no local transmission has occurred for a minimum of three years. The WHO even states that misconceptions about the MMR vaccine cause parents to forgo vaccinating their children. This may be a devastating lasting effect from Wakefield’s faulty study which is now disrupting herd immunity and making people unnecessarily sick. Mump outbreaks are also a common occurrence as seen by transmission on college campuses. In North Carolina, at least a dozen of cases has been reported at universities with 3 cases at Elon and 8 at High Point. Most recently a case of the measles was reported at UNC Chapel Hill in January 2020, showing that the MMR vaccination is needed now more than ever.

My name is Ashley Zucker, and I am a pre-nursing major and music minor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Although I enjoy science, especially anatomy and physiology, I absolutely love music. I have been in choir since I was 3 years old. Now, I am in the UNC Soprano and Alto Glee Club! I also love musical theatre and opera. I recently saw my first opera at the Met in NYC called Le Nozze di Figaro. Because I am a musical theatre nerd, I have seen at least 10 Broadway shows in NYC and have been in several musicals in high school like Once Upon a Mattress and Thoroughly Modern Millie. However, my favorite thing I have ever done in my life was studying opera in Spoleto, Italy in high school. During my time in the Spoleto Study Abroad program I lived in an old convent, sang Italian arias everyday, and ate delicious gelato and Italian food.

Along with music and singing, I LOVE food. And, in my personal opinion, pistachio gelato is the best one. I can’t wait to learn more about microbiology this semester!!